Women and the New Authoritarianism in Yemen: Houthis, Revolution, Nationalism and Islam
Keywords:
Yemen, Houthis, Women, Islam, NationalismCopyright (c) 2021 Ewa K. Strzelecka
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Abstract
This article looks at the ways in which gender dynamics have shaped and been shaped by the Houthis (Ansar Allah) in Yemen from the 2011 uprisings to the present day. In particular, it addresses the questions on how the roles and participation of women have been changing to better respond to new challenges and needs related to the war of 2015 and the Houthis' goal of seizing state power and build a nation according to their own ideological interests.
Downloads
References
ABO ALASRAR, Fatima: “Houthis’ disregard for Yemeni customs leaves women at risk”, Arab News, 11 de marzo de 2020, disponible en https://www.arabnews.com/node/1640106 [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
ABUEISH, Tamara: “ISIS-like behavior: Iran-backed Houthis implement extreme measures against women”, Al Arabiya English, 3 de febrero de 2021, disponible en https://english.alarabiya.net/features/2021/02/03/-ISIS-like-behavior-Iran-backed-Houthis-implement-extreme-measures-against-women [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
ACAPS: “The Houthi Supervisory System”, ACAPS Thematic Report, 17 de junio de 2020, disponible en https://www.acaps.org/special-report/yemen-houthi-supervisory-system [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
AL-AGHBARI, Samia: “Abduction, torture, ransom, stigma: How female Houthi militias silence women in Yemen's war”, Almasdar Online, 29 de diciembre de 2019, disponible en https://al-masdaronline.net/national/221 [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
ALAMERI, Rua’a: “Houthis recruiting women to fight in Yemen war”, Al Arabiya English, 7 de septiembre de 2016, disponible en https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2016/09/07/Houthi-militias-recruiting-women-to-fight- [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
ALDROUBI, Mina y MAHMOOD, Ali: “Dozens of Yemeni girls and women face secret Houthi trials on false prostitution charges”, The National, 2 de mayo de 2019, disponible en https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/mena/dozens-of-yemeni-girls-and-women-face-secret-houthi-trials-on-false-prostitution-charges-1.856588 [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
AL-HAMDANI, Raiman y LACKNER, Helen: Talking to the Houthis: How Europeans Can Promote Peace in Yemen, European Council on Foreign Relations, 14 octubre de 2020, disponible en https://ecfr.eu/publication/talking_to_the_houthis_how_europeans_can_promote_peace_in_yemen/ [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
AL-MAHFALI, Mohammed y ROOT James: How Iran's Islamic Revolution Does, and Does Not, Influence Houthi Rule in Northern Yemen, Sana'a Center for Strategic Studies, 12 de febrero 2020, disponible en https://sanaacenter.org/publications/analysis/9050 [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
AL-SAKKAF, Nadia (2021): “Explaining the Lack of Progress in Yemeni Women’s Empowerment: Are Women Leaders the Problem?”, Journal of International Women's Studies, nº 22 (1), pp. 104-120, disponible en https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol22/iss1/6 [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
AL-SAKKAF, Nadia (2018): "Negotiating Women's Empowerment in the NDC”, en HEINZE, Marie-Christine (2018): Yemen and the Search for Stability: Power, Politics and Society after the Arab Spring, London: I. B. Tauris. DOI: 10.5040/9781350989887.ch-006
ANDERLINI, Naraghi, RASHA JARHUM, Sanam, ALLAM, Rana y COWICK, Devin (2017): Bringing Peace to Yemen by Having Women at the Table, U.S. CSWG, Washington, USIP, disponible en https://icanpeacework.org/2017/10/11/bringing-peace-yemen-women-table/ [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
BADRAN, Margot (1995): Feminists, Islam, and Nation: Gender and the Making of Modern Egypt, Princeton, Princeton University Press. DOI: 10.1515/9781400821433
BARON, Beth (2004): Egypt as a Woman: Nationalism, Gender, and Politics, Berkeley, University of California Press. DOI: 10.1525/9780520940819
BERNAL, Victoria (2001): "From Warriors to Wives: Contradictions of Liberation and Development in Eritrea", Northeast African Studies, nº 8 (3), pp. 129-54. DOI: 10.1353/nas.2006.0001
BIN OTHMAN Shaima (2021): Does this government deserve our participation?, Yemen Policy Center, disponible en https://www.yemenpolicy.org/does-this-government-deserve-our-participation/ [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
BRANDT, Marieke (2017): Tribes and Politics in Yemen: A History of the Houthi Conflict, London, Hurst and Company. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190673598.001.0001
CCYRC (2011): Declaration of Youth Revolution Demands, Sana'a, The Coordination Council of the Youth Revolution of Change, disponible en https://www.facebook.com/media/set/?set=a.170147653034903.34939.169040416478960 [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
CONSTITUCIONAL DECLARATION (2015): Sana'a, Revolutionary Committee of the 21 September Revolution, 6 de febrero de 2015, disponible en https://constitutionnet.org/sites/default/files/constitutional_declaration_of_houthis_6_feb_2015_-_english.pdf. [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
FORAN, John, ed. (1997): Theorizing revolutions, Londres, Routledge.
GOLDSTONE, Jack (2009): "Revolution", en LANDMAN, Todd y ROBINSON, Neil: The Sage Handbook of Comparative Politics, Londres, SAGE Publications, pp. 319-347. DOI: 10.4135/9780857021083.n18
GOLKAR, Saeid (2013): "The Feminization of Control: Female Militia and Social Order in Iran", Journal of Women of the Middle East and the Islamic World, nº 11, pp. 16-40. DOI: 10.1163/15692086-12341241
HAMAD ZAHONERO, Leyla y GUTIÉRREZ DE TERÁN GÓMEZ-BENITA, Ignacio (2015): Conflicto militar y acciones terroristas en Yemen, Madrid, Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos (IEEE).
HAMIDADDIN, Abdullah (ed.) (2022): The Huthi Movement in Yemen, Nueva York, I. B. Tauris.
KANDIYOTI, Deniz (1991): "Identity and its Discontents: Women and the Nation." Millennium, nº 20 (3), pp. 429-443. DOI: 10.1177/03058298910200031501
MAHDI, Safia (2021): “Yemen: Women in Houthi Area No Longer in Control of Their Own Body”, Daraj, 3 de febrero de 2021, disponible en https://daraj.com/en/66573/ [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
MAHMOOD, Ali (2021): “Houthi militia raid women's clothing shops and cafes in Sanaa,” The National, 27 de enero de 2021, disponible en https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf-news/houthi-militia-raid-women-s-clothing-shops-and-cafes-in-sanaa-1.1154125 [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
MCCLINTOCK, Anne (1991): "'No Longer in a Future Heaven': Women and Nationalism in South Africa", Transition, nº 51, pp. 104-23. DOI: 10.2307/2935081
MOGHADAM, Valentine (1997): "Gender and Revolutions", en FORAN, John (ed.), Theorizing Revolutions, Londres, Routledge.
MOGHADAM, Valentine (1995): "Gender and Revolutionary Transformation: Iran 1979 and East Central Europe 1989", Gender & Society, nº 9 (3), pp. 328-358. DOI: 10.1177/089124395009003005
MOGHADAM, Valentine (ed.) (1994): Gender and National Identity: Women and Politics in Muslim Societies, Londres, Zed Books.
MOLYNEUX, Maxine (1979): "Women and Revolution in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen", Feminist Review, nº 1(1), pp. 4-20. DOI: 10.1057/fr.1979.2
MWATANA FOR HUMAN RIGHTS (2021): Another Year of Impunity in Yemen. Press briefing on human rights situation in Yemen 2020, 5 de enero de 2021, disponible en https://mwatana.org/en/2020-press-briefing/
NASSER, Afrah (2018): "Yemen's Women Confront War's Marginalization", MERIP, nº 289, disponible en https://merip.org/2019/03/yemens-women-confront-wars-marginalization/ [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
NDC (2014): National Dialogue Conference Outcomes Document, Sana'a, NDC, disponible en https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5b54ded3eadb58942db8e365/5fad75a5ac09a94bceb7608b_NDC%20Doc%20Eng%20V1.pdf [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
O'KEEFE, Theresa (2013): Feminist Identity Development and Activism in Revolutionary Movements, Londres, Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: 10.1057/9781137314741
QASSIM, Abdulkarim, AMIN, Loay, TRANSFELD, Mareike y STRZELECKA, Ewa (2020): The Role of Civil Society in Peacebuilding in Yemen, CARPO Brief, nº 18, Bonn, Center for Applied Research in Partnership with the Orient, disponible en https://carpo-bonn.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/carpo_brief_18_04-05-20_EN.pdf [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
SANA’A CENTER FOR STRATEGIC STUDIES (2021): The Yemen Review: Houthis at the Gates of Marib, Sana’a, disponible en https://sanaacenter.org/publications/the-yemen-review/13365 [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
------ Tax and Rule: Houthis Move to Institutionalize Hashemite Elite with ‘One-Fifth’ Levy, 6 de octubre de 2020, disponible en https://sanaacenter.org/publications/analysis/11628 [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
SEDGHI, Hamideh (2007): Women and Politics in Iran: Veiling, Unveiling, and Reveiling, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511510380
SHAKER, Naser y EDROOS, Faisal: “Mohammed al-Houthi: ‘We want a united and democratic Yemen’”, Al Jazeera, 25 de diciembre de 2018, disponible en https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2018/12/25/mohammed-al-houthi-we-want-a-united-and-democratic-yemen [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
SHAKIR, Wameedh, MARZOUK, Mia y HADDAD, Saleem (2012): Strong Voices: Yemeni Women's Political Participation from Protest to Transition, London, Saferworld, disponible en https://www.saferworld.org.uk/resources/publications/666-strong-voices [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
SHAYNE, Julia Denise (1999): "Gendered Revolutionary Bridges: Women in the Salvadoran Resistance Movement (1979-1992)", Latin American Perspectives, nº 26 (3), pp. 85-102. DOI: 10.1177/0094582X9902600305
SHUJA AL-DEEN, Maysaa (2015): “What a Houthi-controlled Yemen means for women”, Al Monitor, 18 de marzo de 2015, disponible en http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/03/yemen-women-activists-revolution-houthis-saleh.html [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
SPC (2019): National Vision for the Modern Yemeni State, Sana’a, Supreme Political Council of the Republic of Yemen, 26 de marzo 2019, disponible en http://yemenvision.gov.ye/en/upload/National%20Vision%20For%20The%20Modern%20Yemeni%20State.pdf [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
STRZELECKA, Ewa (2018): "A Political Culture of Feminist Resistance: Exploring Women's Agency and Gender Dynamics in Yemen's Uprising (2011-2015)", en HEINZE, Marie?Christine (ed.): Yemen and the Search for Stability: Power, Politics and Society After the Arab Spring, New York, I.B. Tauris. DOI: 10.5040/9781350989887.ch-002
STRZELECKA, Ewa (2017): Mujeres en la Primavera Árabe: construcción de una cultura política de resistencia feminista en Yemen, Madrid, CSIC.
STRZELECKA, Ewa (2015): Género, cultura, islam y desarrollo: construcción de una cultura política de resistencia feminista en Yemen, Granada, Universidad de Granada, disponible en http://hdl.handle.net/10481/40614 [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
TAYLOR, Verta (1999): "Gender and Social Movements", Gender & Society, nº 13 (1), pp. 8-33. DOI: 10.1177/089124399013001002
UN: “Yemen: la peor crisis humanitaria del mundo quedaría sin atención por falta de fondos”, Noticias ONU, 19 de agosto de 2020, disponible en https://news.un.org/es/story/2020/08/1479202 [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
UNSC: Final Report of the Panel of Experts (S/2021/79), 22 de enero de 2021, disponible en https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N20/372/40/PDF/N2037240.pdf?OpenElement [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
UNSC: Final Report of the Panel of Experts on Yemen (S/2020/326), 28 de abril de 2020, disponible en https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N20/106/86/PDF/N2010686.pdf?OpenElement [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
UNSC: Report of the Secretary-General on conflict-related sexual violence (S/2018/250), 23 de marzo de 2018, disponible en https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/s_2018_250.pdf [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
UNHRC: Situation of Human Rights in Yemen, including violations and abuses since September 2014 (A/HRC/42/CRP.1), Human Rights Council, 3 de septiembre de 2019, disponible en https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/GEE-Yemen/A_HRC_42_CRP_1.PDF [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
UNHRC: Situation of human rights in Yemen, including violations and abuses since September 2014 (A/HRC/45/6), Human Rights Council, 28 de septiembre de 2020, disponible en https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/GEE-Yemen/2020-09-09-report.pdf [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
UNSG: Conflict-related sexual violence: Report of the United Nations Secretary-General, 17 de julio de 2020, disponible en https://www.un.org/sexualviolenceinconflict/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/report/conflict-related-sexual-violence-report-of-the-united-nations-secretary-general/2019-SG-Report.pdf [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM (2008): The Global Gender Gap Report 2018, disponible en http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2018.pdf [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
YEMEN’S DRAFT CONSTITUTION OF 2015, 15 de enero de 2015, disponible en https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Yemen_2015D.pdf?lang=en [consulta: 24 de noviembre de 2021].
YUVAL-DAVIS, Nira (1997): Gender and Nation, Londres, Sage Publications.